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Volume 7, Number 1 Pages: 84 thru 108 |
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Volume 7, Number 1 Pages: 84 thru 108 |
Understanding Aymara Perspectives on Development
Amy Eisenburg, Ph.D.
©
2006 Amy Eisenburg
(Editor’s
Note: Dr. Eisenburg undertook a study conducted with the Aymara Indians
of the northern Chilean Andes, from November 1998 through January 1999, in an
attempt to understand Aymara perspectives about Chilean state initiated
development within their ancestral homeland. She designed her study as
participatory action research intended to engage Aymara people directly in the
assessment of their cultural and natural resources along an altitudinal
gradient from the coastal city of Arica to the Altiplano, the high plateau at
Lago Chungara. The following essay is excerpted from her full study that holds
the title: AYMARA PERSPECTIVES:
ETHNOECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN ANDEAN COMMUNITIES OF NORTHERN CHILE
This interdisciplinary study in Arid Lands Resource Sciences draws upon the fields of ethnoecology, American Indian studies, applied cultural anthropology, botany, agriculture, history, physical and cultural geography, and social and environmental impact assessment. Ethnographic interviews with Aymara people were conducted in sixteen Aymara villages along an altitudinal transect from sea level to 4600 meters. A systematic social and environmental impact assessment was executed along International Chilean Highway 11, which connects Arica, Chile with the highlands of Bolivia.
For Andean people, economic, spiritual and social life, are inextricably tied to land and water. The Chilean Aymara comprise a small, geographically isolated minority of Tarapaca, the northern border region, who are struggling to maintain their sustainable and traditional systems of irrigation waters distribution, agriculture and pastoralism in one of the most arid regions of the world, the Atacama Desert. Ethnoecological dimensions of the conflict between rapid economic growth and a sensitive cultural and natural resource base are explored through participatory research methods. The recent paving of Chilean Highway 11, the diversion of Altiplano waters of the Rio Lauca to the arid coast for hydroelectricity and irrigation, and Chilean national park policies regarding Aymara communities, their natural resources and cultural properties within Parque Nacional Lauca, the International Biosphere Reserve, are examined from the perspectives of the Aymara people. The potentiality of indigenous resource management of this protected area is discussed within the context of human-land reciprocal relations.
The findings of this study, based on Aymara Indian perspectives, are
designed to aid in understanding and appreciating the cosmological vision, and
the needs of Andean communities in the poorest province of Chile. The Aymara
showed great interest in having their perspectives and cultural concerns
expressed and incorporated into historic and cultural preservation
legislation.
Achieving
a research conclusion is an undertaking in which an attempt is made to reveal
the study in its full perspective. It is a return to an overview of the data
in search of an organic form that will allow transcendence of the limitations
of specifics without disregarding the systematized processes of science, and
consequently the loss of scientific responsibility. The ideal analysis process
permits the data to lead to its own conclusions (Collier and Collier 1986:172,
205). For effective and empowering participatory social and environmental
impact assessment, which addresses the marginalization and disempowerment that
often accompanies development projects, there must be a strong element of
community involvement in conjunction with monitoring, in order to serve the
long-term interests and ethical concerns of the Aymara people. In the
literature on social and environmental impact assessment, it is widely
acknowledged that consultative impact studies can provide means of equipping
communities to manage change more effectively, equitably and sustainably.
Aymara communities should be involved in the scoping, designing, researching,
reporting and decision-making processes regarding project development within
their cultural landscape. Social and environmental impact assessment
guidelines need to be implemented and enforced.
In
the Andean Region of Tarapaca, the impact assessment process was not
integrated into project development and regional planning, nor were Aymara
communities consulted prior to project initiation and advancement. Politics
and bureaucratic protectiveness resulted in their exclusion, yet principles of
law, equity and scientific methodology uphold their inclusion and
participation. The Chilean government, development contractors and regional
planners did not acknowledge, support or respond to the impact assessment
process. The unresponsiveness of developmentalist Chilean society reflects a
long history of domination, differing perspectives, values and competing goals
of various stakeholders. Decision-making agencies often regard social and
environmental impact assessment as threatening, disruptive and as an obstacle
to project development. Ultimately, when social and environmental impact
assessment is properly conducted development firms and government agencies
will profit economically in the long run from a more positive social
environment for their work. A fundamental principle of project evaluation and
management, which is not represented in the Chilean legislative framework or
development management practices, is taking action to ensure that sustainable
development benefits to the Aymara communities that face disruption and
disturbance are forthcoming. Inclusion of this basic tenet in the statutory
framework implicated in evaluation of development proposals in the extreme
north might have reduced or possibly avoided some of the negative impacts
encountered by Aymara communities of Tarapaca today.
Social
and environmental impact assessment can be an important instrument for
protection of the rights and traditions of indigenous people in the face of
rapid resource development. The foundations of social and environmental impact
assessment articulate a distinct concern for human rights, justice and
accountability. The challenge of tying prodevelopment policies and processes
with the enhancement of indigenous rights is a critical issue currently facing
Chile’s developing democracy. Aymara land and resource rights, cultural
heritage protection, and respect and regard for ceremonial places and
practices in this study all concern the ethical question of human rights. The
development of International Chilean Highway 11, the creation of Parque
Nacional Lauca and the diversion of the Rio Lauca for hydroelectricity and
irrigation on the arid coast have a highly politicized history. See Chapter VI
Social and Environmental Impact Assessment for an in depth review of this
discussion. For sound planning and development, and good governance, it is
requisite that decision-makers and land managers have a clear and
sophisticated understanding of development projects and the cultural and
biophysical landscape in which the undertaking will become a part (Howitt and
Jackson 2000:269).
Andean
Region I of northern Chile is a multiethnic society, in which Aymara people
are a significant culturally and economically important indigenous community.
It is therefore imperative that social and environmental impact assessment of
development projects in the extreme north adopt a multicultural definition of
environment, which recognizes that various cultural groups define, utilize,
value and construct meaning of landscape in different ways. An Andean
controlled and directed social and environmental impact assessment will offer
the most accurate evaluation of affected areas considered highly significant
by the Aymara people. How successful the Aymara will fare in implementing
their impact mitigation, management and compensation recommendations remains
to be seen.
Critical
concerns of Aymara people that were identified in this study include water
quality and availability, land and sacred site protection, animal safety,
resource management, employment, betterment of health and hygienic facilities,
education and training opportunities, tourism and respect for Aymara cultural
traditions and livelihood, consultation, compensation, enhancement and support
for sustainable agropastoral systems and economic improvement and assistance.
It is essential that the tensions, which exist between Aymara priorities and
development imperatives, be addressed symmetrically. The Andean Region of
Tarapaca, rich in social, economic and cultural activity, is a complex, living
landscape with a long history. Development within the Aymara cultural
landscape without consultation with Aymara people affects their life
experience and future aspirations. Compensation for damage and loss of
resources has not been addressed by government planners and decision-makers.
Aymara people clearly experience great hardship, distress and disturbance in
accepting the disruption and damage of their traditional cultural and natural
properties, while government agencies have not assumed responsibility for
these significant impacts. Many of the identified impacts appear to fall
between statutory responsibilities of Chilean authorities. Oftentimes,
numerous economic development problems have their roots in the sectoral
fragmentation of responsibility. Sustainable development necessitates that
such fragmentation be overcome (World Commission on Environment and
Development 1987:63). Regional and local solutions are fundamental to prevent
further exacerbation of negative project effects. The Aymara have the right to
be compensated for the disturbance and destruction caused by highway
development, water appropriation and exclusive national park policies that do
not include support for traditional Aymara pastoralism or address protection
for Aymara herds. The failure to address the issue of compensation has
affected relationships between government agencies and Aymara communities. A
common model utilized in a number of countries is for compensation to be
negotiated or adjudicated.
The development of International Chilean Highway 11, the creation of Parque Nacional Lauca and the diversion of the Rio Lauca for irrigation and hydroelectricity were meant to expand economic activities such as mining, tourism, agriculture and international commerce in the Region of Tarapaca. The assumption that regional economic benefits of these development projects outweigh the social, cultural, political or economic burdens on local Andean communities is largely false. In Chile, existing colonial patterns of development have marginalized indigenous people through inappropriate planning and entrenched structural racism. It remains a difficult task of documentation and diplomacy to shift entrenched values and promote open dialogue to implement the study’s recommendations for community participation, while addressing Aymara concerns in an ongoing way to meet international practice standards for social and environmental impact assessment. Negotiated settlement arrangements and governmental commitments are key in the consultation process, which completely excluded Aymara communities of Tarapaca. However, it is not too late to include the very people and communities that are directly affected by externally imposed development projects within their cultural landscape. Effective monitoring of cultural resources involves commitment and empowerment of Aymara communities to respond to issues as they arise, while their reported concerns must be heard, considered and valued by regional authorities. The most effective way to sustain an ongoing relationship with Aymara people is through consistent feedback on the status of their cultural resources. American Indian people respond positively to being involved in impact assessment consultation and decision-making regarding their traditional resources (Stoffle 2000:215-216).
The
impacts of development projects within the Aymara cultural landscape were
identified, assessed and evaluated through the perceptions of the Aymara
people. The findings lead us to conclude that there have been serious
disruptions in the social fabric of highland Aymara communities caused by the
construction of International Chilean Highway 11, the diversion and
canalization of the Rio Lauca for hydroelectricity and irrigation on the
coast, and the creation of Parque Nacional Lauca. There exist multiple and
cumulative impacts caused by these interrelated resource development projects.
Environmental transformation and unilaterally imposed policies place severe
constraints on the ability of the Aymara community to prevent, ameliorate or
endure the extent and severity of impacts on their lands, resources and
community life. Alteration of the biophysical and human environments of these
communities are significant and adverse.
There
is a need for Chilean government agencies and industry to accept some measure
of responsibility for the social and environmental effects of their projects.
Aymara land and water rights should be legally defined and Aymara rights to a
degree of internal control and protection of their territory should be set
down in Chilean law. The Chilean government has shown itself unwilling to
recognize the Aymara’s rights to participate in determining a future that is
consonant with their history and traditions. Aymara communities have the right
to participate in all projects undertaken within their cultural landscape.
Participatory
ethnographic assessment has the potential for contributing substantively to
recognizing the systemic institutional relations and processes that must
change in order to redress past injustices visited upon disadvantaged and
marginalized peoples because of ill-conceived notions of culture. Placing
impact assessment within a cultural framework directs analysis toward
resolving conflicts concerning the distribution of burdens and benefits. The
responsibility of the researcher is to ensure that assumptions and
uncertainties are clearly articulated and community concerns are recognized.
It is essential that Aymara perspectives become part of the information base
for decision-making, mitigation, monitoring and influencing land-management
legislation in their traditional landscape. Relations between Chilean
government agencies and Andean people have a long history that is often
recounted as bitter or adversarial. It is important that there be respectful
and constructive communication and power sharing between Aymara communities
and Chilean authorities. The Aymara are highly knowledgeable about their
traditional resources, and because of their proximity and intimacy with the
resources, specialized knowledge and daily experiences, they are acutely aware
of factors that have adverse or positive impacts on their conservation.
Chilean government agency land managers in the Andes could clearly benefit
from an Aymara cultural and natural resource management and monitoring plan.
The desired outcome of negotiated quality consultation between the Aymara and
Chilean government agencies is a stable and lasting productive partnership,
which requires mutual respect, shared power and means for sustaining an
ongoing long-term relationship. Such an alliance can be established through
mutual trust, a common foundation of understanding and knowledge, and the
conception and implementation of a cultural resource management and monitoring
plan (Stoffle 2000: 212-213).
Social and environmental impact assessment, as a highly evaluative
field of applied anthropology is a significant constituent of the planning
process that was completely absent in the development scheme in Andean
Tarapaca. Impact assessment is specifically aimed at improving the quality of
communication, minimizing risk of conflict between developers, proponents and
local communities, and anticipating and diminishing adverse impacts, while
seeking to manage change responsibly and sustainably. Clearly, social and
environmental impact assessment has the capacity to influence the policy
decision-making process by encouraging affected community participation. It
engenders a series of ethical relationships that emerge from the association
between the investigator and the people of the affected communities. Of single
most importance is engaging and collaborating with the involved communities in
order to strengthen their capacity-building efforts. The analyst must orient
to the overarching concerns that are in the best interest of the communities
at risk. The Code of Ethics of the International Association for Impact
Assessment states that the integrity of the natural environment and the
health, safety and welfare of the human community shall at all times be placed
above any commitment to sectoral or private interests. It is the professional
responsibility of the researcher to give something back to the participants
and collaborators for their input and assistance in the study. There is an
explicit need for the investigator to ensure that there be a forum process
attended by all stakeholders, which has as its definitive agenda the objective
of discussing the study findings. Mitigation and impact management need to be
established to minimize or offset the adverse impacts, and be incorporated
into a social and environmental management plan. Ongoing consultation, impact
monitoring and mitigation are the surest way to continued satisfaction between
all stakeholders (Goldman and Baum 2000:14-27).
This
chapter includes some pertinent recommendations and delineates an approach to
impact assessment that if accepted, could permit the Aymara their rightful
voice in the development of their cultural and natural resources.
ARUSKIPASIPXAÑANAKASAKIPUNIRAKÏSPAWA
We
are human beings, hence we must communicate.
The Aymara believe in the unity of humankind and that only as one can we make this earth a good place for all of us. To make the earth a good place for all of humankind requires understanding and appreciation for the vast varieties of language and culture that we, as people have developed through time (Hardman 1981:16). According to the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987:44, 65, 348), the strategy for sustainable development aims to promote harmony among human beings and between humanity and nature. A proposed legal principle is that all human beings have the fundamental right to an environment that will sustain their health and well-being (Figure 70). “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” It necessitates meeting the basic needs of all and extending and ensuring to all equitable opportunities to satisfy their aspirations for a better life.
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